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doi:10.1016/j.jbmt.2007.11.004
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies (]]]]) ], ]]]–]]]
Journal of
Bodywork and
Movement Therapies
SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
Treating non-specific chronic low back pain through
the Pilates Method
Roy La Touche a,b, , Karla Escalante a , Mar´a Teresa Linares b
a Physiotherapy and Human Movement Research Unit, Pilates Core Kinesis, Madrid, Spain
b Physiotherapy Department, Medicine Faculty, San Pablo CEU University, Madrid, Spain
Received 17 September 2007; received in revised form 21 November 2007; accepted 23 November 2007
KEYWORDS
Low back pain;
Rehabilitation;
Exercise therapy;
Pilates
Summary The goal of this study is to review and analyze scientific articles where
the Pilates Method was used as treatment for non-specific chronic low back pain
(CLBP). Articles were searched using the Medline, EMBASE, PEDro, CINAHL, and
SPORTDICUS databases. The criteria used for inclusion were randomized controlled
trials (RCT) and clinical controlled trials (CCT) published in English where
therapeutic treatment was based on the Pilates Method. The analysis was carried
out by two independent reviewers using the PEDro and Jadad Scales. Two RCTs and
one CCT were selected for a retrospective analysis. The results of the studies
analyzed all demonstrate positive effects, such as improved general function and
reduction in pain when applying the Pilates Method in treating non-specific CLBP in
adults. However, further research is required to determine which specific
parameters are to be applied when prescribing exercises based on the Pilates
Method with patients suffering from non-specific CLBP. Finally, we believe that more
studies must be carried out where the samples are more widespread so as to give a
larger representation and more reliable results.
& 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
and Kelsey, 1984 ) adult population. It has been
estimated that low back pain (LBP) can be found in
between 8% and 56% of the population in the United
States ( Manchikanti, 2000 ) and amounts to a billion
dollars per year in medical expenses and other
expenses indirectly related to LBP ( Luo et al.,
2004 ).
Philips and Grant have described that between
30% and 40% of patients suffering from LBP never
completely recover and, on the contrary, later
develop permanent chronic LBP ( Philips and Grant,
Chronic low back pain (CLBP) is the most common
cause for frequent absenteeism at work in the less
than 45-year-old ( Carr and Moffett, 2005 ; Cunningham
Corresponding author at: Departamento de Fisioterapia,
Facultad de Medicina, Universidad San Pablo CEU, C/Mart´n d e
los Heros, 60, 28008 Madrid, Spain.
1360-8592/$ - see front matter & 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: La Touche, R., et al., Treating non-specific chronic low back pain through the Pilates Method. Journal of
Bodywork and Movement Therapy (2008), doi: 10.1016/j.jbmt.2007.11.004
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R. La Touche et al.
1991 ) symptoms. Although causes for LBP are multi-
faceted, they are directly related to etiological
factors such as social demographic characteristics,
habits, as well as physical and psychosocial factors
( Manchikanti, 2000 ). In a prospective study, Lee
et al. (1999) demonstrated that an imbalance
between flexor and extensor muscles of the trunk
is a risk factor that can cause LBP to appear. Other
authors have found that dysfunctions and weak-
nesses that exist in the deep abdominal muscles
(transverse muscle of the abdomen, pelvic floor,
diaphragm and the multifidus muscles) can be
associated to LBP ( Hodges and Richarson, 1996 ;
O’Sullivan et al., 1997a ). In reference to this,
Hodges and Richardson (1999) have added that the
function and coordination of the stabilization of
low back muscles (mainly the extensors) are
reduced in LBP patients.
Several studies mention that LBP is the main
reason for physiotherapy consultations ( Boisson-
nault, 1999 ; Di Fabio and Boissonnault, 1998 ; Jette
and Davis, 1991 ). Jette and Jette (1996) note that
the physiotherapeutic treatment most frequently
applied is focused on strengthening and stretching
exercises, thermo-therapy, and manual therapy.
However, therapeutic exercise seems to be the
most effective in treating LBP, according to
scientific research described by several reviews
( Philadelphia Panel, 2001 ; Van Tulder et al., 1997,
2002 ).
The Pilates Method started to be developed by
Joseph H. Pilates during World War I ( Latey, 2001 ).
It was originally referred to as Contrology and was
only later called the Pilates Method during Joseph
Pilates lifetime ( Anderson and Spector, 2000 ). This
method was introduced in the United States in 1923
and spread in the 1930s and 1940s among choreo-
graphers and dance instructors ( Anderson and
Spector, 2000 ). These professionals were the first
to describe the method as a rehabilitation techni-
que that led to recovery from their sports-related
injuries ( Anderson, 2001 ; Anderson and Spector,
2000 ).
Currently, the Pilates Method is popular in all
areas of fitness and rehabilitation, although there is
little scientific evidence that describes its benefits.
An observational prospective study carried out by
Segal et al. (2004) demonstrated significant im-
provement in flexibility after doing 3 months of
Pilates; however, the body’s composition values
were not modified. In reference to this, Jago et al.
(2006) carried out a controlled randomized study
on girls practicing Pilates 5 days a week, 1 h per
session, for a 4-week period. They obtained
positive results in terms of modifying their body
composition. As a result, the authors concluded
that Pilates could be a useful preventive measure
against obesity.
In terms of aspects related to rehabilitation,
Pilates has been shown to improve the dynamic
balance in healthy adults ( Jonson et al., 2007 ) and
postural stability in senior citizens ( Kaesler et al.,
2007 ). There is also good tolerance to the Pilates
Method when combined with counter-resistance
exercises in hospitalized senior citizens ( Mallery
et al., 2003 ). However, the authors concluded that
it would be valuable to study the benefits of these
exercises with other groups of people. Moreover,
Smith and Smith (2004) touch on the theory that
the Pilates Method can improve physical features
such as flexibility, propioception, balance, and
coordination. They also suggest that these benefits
can be integrated into rehabilitation programs, as
well as training for improving muscular resistance
and balance in senior citizens.
In terms of treating low back and pelvic muscles,
Garc´a et al. (2004) found significant statistical
gains in the strength of low back extensor muscles
after 25 Pilates sessions applied to 20 healthy
subjects. Moreover, Herrington and Davies (2005)
demonstrated that Pilates is more effective than
regular abdominal curls in triggering the transver-
sus abdominis contractions in healthy subjects.
In 2004, an article by Maher (2004) focusing on
treating CLBP did not recommend Pilates for this type
of ailment, as there is no scientific evidence that
justifies its effectiveness. However, it is important to
mention that randomized clinical studies on this
subject began to be published as of 2006.
The goal of this study is to review and analyze
scientific articles where the Pilates Method was
used as treatment for non-specific CLBP.
Material and methods
Criteria for inclusion
In order to select studies to be reviewed, the
criteria used for inclusion considered the following:
(a) randomized controlled trials (RCT) and clinical
controlled trials (CCT); (b) studies carried out on
adults with CLBP; (c) studies where therapeutic
treatment was based on the Pilates Method; (d)
studies published in scientific journals between
1980 and 2006; and (e) studies published in English.
Search strategy
Searching for articles was done using the following
databases: Medline, EMBASE, PEDro, CINAHL, and
Please cite this article as: La Touche, R., et al., Treating non-specific chronic low back pain through the Pilates Method. Journal of
Bodywork and Movement Therapy (2008), doi: 10.1016/j.jbmt.2007.11.004
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Treating non-specific chronic low back pain through the Pilates Method
3
SPORTDICUS. The terms used for the search were
‘‘Pilates’’, ‘‘LBP’’, ‘‘Rehabilitation’’, and ‘‘Exercise
Therapy’’. A total of 12 potential studies were
found, and the first information analysis was
carried out by two independent reviewers. The
first analysis was based on the study of information
provided by the abstract, the title, and key words.
The articles selected from the first analysis were
studied in depth using the full text in the evalua-
tion phase. The last day of the search was carried
out 17 November 2006.
Table 1 The PEDro Scale.
1. Eligibility criteria were
specified
Ye s No
2. Subjects were randomly
allocated to groups (in a crossover
study, subjects were randomly
allocated an order in which
treatments were received)
Ye s No
3. Allocation was concealed
Yes No
4. The groups were similar at
baseline regarding the most
important prognostic indicators
Ye s No
Evaluation methodology of studies
5. There was blinding of all
subjects
Ye s No
The evaluation of the methodological quality of the
studies was carried out using two instruments, the
PEDro ( Table 1 ) and Jadad Scales. The PEDro Scale
was based on the Delphi List ( Verhagen et al., 1998 )
and includes 11 items that, overall, aims to
evaluate four fundamental methodological aspects
of a study such as the random process, the blinding
technique, group comparison, and the data-analy-
sis process. According to Sherrington et al. (2000) ,
this scale was used to closely evaluate 3000 articles
on controlled random clinical studies indexed in the
PEDro database. The reliability of this scale was
evaluated and acceptable results ( Bhogal et al.,
2005 ; Maher et al., 2003 ) were obtained. The Jadad
Scale ( Jadad et al., 1996 ) is one of the oldest and
most commonly used instruments to evaluate the
quality of clinical tests. This scale evaluates the
quality of the clinical-test design by means of five
items: (1) Is the study randomized? (2) Is the study
double blinded? (3) Does the study describe if
subjects withdraw? (4) Is the randomization ade-
quately described? (5) Is the blindness adequately
described? Clark et al. (2001) demonstrated that
the Jadad Scale has a good inter-examiner relia-
bility.
Two independent reviewers evaluated the quality
of each one of the articles selected using the same
methodology. Disagreements between reviewers
were resolved by including the criteria of a third
reviewer as a means of reaching consensus. The
features of the treatments applied, the results, and
the conclusions presented in the studies under
analysis are explained in a descriptive way in
‘‘Results’’ section.
6. There was blinding of all
therapists who administered the
therapy
Ye s No
7. There was blinding of all
assessors who measured at least
one key outcome
Ye s No
8. Measures of at least one key
outcome were obtained from more
than 85% of the subjects initially
allocated to groups
Ye s No
9. All subjects for whom outcome
measures were available received
the treatment or control condition
as allocated or, where this was not
the case, data for at least one key
outcome was analyzed by
‘‘intention to perform treatment’’
Ye s No
10. The results of between-group
statistical comparisons are
reported for at least one key
outcome
Ye s No
11. The study provides both point
measures and measures of
variability for at least one key
outcome
Ye s No
cases were found where the Pilates Method was
applied for non-specific CLBP. Table 2 shows the
features of the study in a more descriptive way.
Results of the methodological quality
evaluation using the PEDro and Jadad Scales
After evaluating the methodological quality of the
studies using the PEDro and Jadad Scales, different
results were obtained for each study. However,
Gladwell et al. (2006) and Rydeard et al. (2006)
were the most similar in terms of study design
( Tables 3 and 4 ). The three reviewers had dis-
crepancies in terms of evaluating points 2, 9 and 10
on the PEDro Scale in all of the studies, whereas the
Results
While searching for articles in the first analysis
phase, two RCTs ( Rydeard et al., 2006 ; Gladwell
et al., 2006 ) and one CCT ( Donzelli et al., 2006 )
Please cite this article as: La Touche, R., et al., Treating non-specific chronic low back pain through the Pilates Method. Journal of
Bodywork and Movement Therapy (2008), doi: 10.1016/j.jbmt.2007.11.004
211523994.004.png
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R. La Touche et al.
Table 2 Characteristics of the studies included.
Study
Method
Subjects
Intervention
Outcome
Gladwell
et al.
(2006)
RCT
Blinding
assessors
N ¼ 49
Age: EG
average: 36;
CG average:
45
All the
participants,
average: 40
EG: Pilates on mat
CG: Without specific
intervention and with
continuous health care
Duration: 1 session a
week for 6 weeks.
Significant statistical effects
in improving general health,
sports functions, flexibility,
propioception and reducing
pain
Donzelli
et al.
(2006)
CCT
Blinding
assessors
N ¼ 53
Average age:
50
CG: Back School method
EG: Pilates on mat
Duration: 10 consecutive
1 h sessions
Both groups showed reduced
back pain and improved
functions. However, there was
no comparison between both
groups
Rydeard
et al.
(2006)
RCT
Blinding
assessors
N ¼ 39
Age EG
average: 37;
CG,
average: 34
Sex: F 25, M
14
EG: Pilates on (reformer)
machines and on mat
CG: Without specific
intervention and with
continuous health care
Duration: 1 h a week and
15min of exercise at
home 6 days a week.
Complete Program 4
weeks
Significant statistical effects
in reducing pain and
improving functions
Table 3 The methodological quality of the studies as measured by the PEDro Scale.
Authors (year)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Sum
Gladwell et al. (2006)
–
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
6/10
Donzelli et al. (2006)
–
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
3/10
Rydeard et al. (2006)
–
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
8/10
discrepancies were mainly concerned with points 2
and 4 on the Jadad Scale.
Donzelli et al. (2006) obtained the least points
and this was due to several inconsistencies in the
clarity of the descriptions when referring to
research design. One example of this is related to
the distribution of the sample. The title of the
study says it is a controlled random one, however,
in ‘‘Methods’’ section, it does not mention the
technique used to make the random distribution,
nor does it mention if the distribution was really
carried out in a random manner or if it was done
according to convenience. Another inconsistency of
this study is that it does not compare nor make an
adequate statistical analysis between the two
Table 4 The methodological quality of the
studies as measured by the Jadad Scale.
Authors (year) 12345um
Gladwell et al. (2006) 110114
Donzelli et al. (2006) 000011
Rydeard et al. (2006) 110114
groups. What it does is to present the results in a
descriptive way.
The Gladwell et al. (2006) study does make
an adequate comparison and a good statistical
analysis. The only inconvenience is that the
data analyzed and described in the results was
Please cite this article as: La Touche, R., et al., Treating non-specific chronic low back pain through the Pilates Method. Journal of
Bodywork and Movement Therapy (2008), doi: 10.1016/j.jbmt.2007.11.004
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ARTICLE IN PRESS
Treating non-specific chronic low back pain through the Pilates Method
5
completed with less than 85% of the subjects who
started the study. This also occurred in Donzelli
et al. (2006) study. The data analyzed in Rydeard
et al. (2006) study was divided into two phases.
During the first, which was carried out at the end of
the intervention phase, no subjects left the
sample. This means 100% of the data was analyzed.
During the second phase, the data analyzed was
collected for periods of 3, 6 or 12 months. In this
analysis, some of the subjects left the experimen-
tal group.
from the classic Pilates Method. This modified
Pilates Method was designed for the improvement
of posture and control movement ( Rydeard et al.,
2006 ) through neuromuscular control techniques
that increase the lumbar spine stability thanks to
the targeting of the local stabilizers muscles of the
lumbar-pelvic region or ‘‘core muscles’’ ( Gladwell
et al., 2006 ; Rydeard et al., 2006 ). In this version of
Pilates, the complexity can be increased by
incorporating dynamic movements to the exercise
program ( Gladwell et al., 2006 ).
The Gladwell et al. (2006) and the Rydeard et al.
(2006) studies coincide in many of the patterns
used in prescribing exercise, which means the bases
and principles of low back pelvic stabilization
exercises have been adapted. Some of the exercise
parameters used in the modified Pilates Method are
also important in other lumbar-pelvic region
stabilizing exercises, such as specific reeducation
exercises of the lumbar-pelvic region, progressions
from static to dynamic postures, teaching strate-
gies and conditioning training for the maintenance
of a neutral spine and pelvis. Moreover, it has been
demonstrated that stabilizing lumbar-pelvic exer-
cises are effective in treating LBP ( Arokoski et al.,
2004 ; Goldby et al., 2006 ; Hides et al., 2001 ; Lewis
et al., 2005 ).
It would be interesting if future research
proposals focused more on modified Pilates in the
treatment of chronic, lower-back pain. O’Sullivan
et al. (1997b) demonstrated that a stabilizing
exercise program for patients with chronic lower-
back pain specifically due to spondylolysis and
spondylolisthesis was the most effective in improv-
ing movement and relieving pain. This type of
study can help us to better focus on new research
areas.
One of the limitations of the three research
studies are the modest numbers in the sample used,
as well as the fact that some subjects left before
the end of the study. This is a factor that must be
improved in future research and a more rigorous
selection process should be used for both the
subjects and for the therapeutic exercises based
on the Pilates Method.
In future studies, it would also be important to do
more research on which exercises based on the
Pilates Method should be prescribed as a therapeu-
tic means in treating non-specific CLBP. It would
also be important to determine, for example, the
frequency in which the method should be applied
so as to get therapeutic gains, the intensity and
adequate volume of exercises in the diverse
rehabilitation phases, and if Pilates carried out on
mats is more effective or adequate than Pilates
using machines or vice versa.
Characteristics of the subjects used for the
studies
All of the subjects used in the studies had non-
specific chronic low back pain. The subjects of the
Rydeard et al. (2006) study had CLBP for more than
6 weeks, whereas in the Gladwell et al. (2006) and
the Donzelli et al. (2006) studies, they had CLBP for
more than 12 weeks.
The average age for the Rydeard et al. (2006)
study was 37 in the experimental group (EG) and 39
in the control group (CG). In the Gladwell et al.
(2006) study, the average age was 36 for EG and 45
for the CG. Finally, in the Donzelli et al. (2006)
study, the average age was 50.
Discussion
The articles analyzed in this review are similar in
terms of the characteristics of the treatment and
subjects used. Moreover, the methodological qual-
ity of the three studies is acceptable. In terms of
the effectiveness of the Pilates Method for treating
CLBP, the three studies also show positive results in
improving functions and reducing pain. However,
only the Rydeard et al. (2006) study, as well as the
Gladwell et al. (2006) study are adequately
compared to their respective control groups.
Therefore, these results are the most representa-
tive in terms of the effectiveness of the treatment
referred to. The Donzelli et al. (2006) study
apparently shows positive results, but the problem
is that they are shown in a descriptive way and do
not make a statistical comparison with the ones
gathered in the control group. This makes the
interpretation of these results a little confusing,
and also makes it difficult to reach conclusions on
this study.
It is fundamental to highlight that prescribing
exercise based on the Pilates Method, as described
in the studies, is based on parameters adapted for
rehabilitation purposes. This is to be distinguished
Please cite this article as: La Touche, R., et al., Treating non-specific chronic low back pain through the Pilates Method. Journal of
Bodywork and Movement Therapy (2008), doi: 10.1016/j.jbmt.2007.11.004
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