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"Index". In: Welding Metallurgy (Second Edition)
Welding Metallurgy, Second Edition. Sindo Kou
Copyright ¶ 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
ISBN: 0-471-43491-4
INDEX
Acicular ferrite, 66, 74, 88, 90, 233–239,
405
Alternating grain orientation, 291
Aluminum alloys,
Al-Li alloys, 80, 95, 188, 195, 354, 371,
374
designation, 355
filler metals, 183, 202, 251, 255, 285,
286, 291, 300, 303, 326, 328, 330, 332,
338, 339, 360, 362, 374
heat treatable, 353, 355, 359, 365–366,
369, 379
heat-affected zone softening, 352, 354,
373
partially melted zone cracking, 321,
334
partially melted zone liquation,
303–317, 330
porosity, 66, 80, 81, 95, 251, 259, 262,
353–354, 394
solidification cracking, 271, 273, 278,
281, 284–286, 288, 291, 294, 299, 300,
322, 330
typical welding problems, 354
Angular distortion, 5
Annealing, 343, 345, 346, 349, 369, 373,
374, 388, 408, 442, 447
gas tungsten arc welding, 6, 13, 18, 28,
56, 67, 78
plasma arc welding, 3, 6, 17–19, 40, 42,
74, 80, 81, 354, 366
shielded metal arc welding, 3, 6, 11, 12,
66, 67, 75, 76
submerged arc welding, 3, 6, 22, 24, 90,
189, 238, 295
Argon, 14–16, 19, 31, 32, 70, 73, 193, 237
Artificial aging,
Al alloys, 353, 357, 359, 360, 363–367,
373
Ni-base alloys, 375, 376, 380
Austenite,
high-carbon, 401
retained, 399
stainless steel, 174
Autogenous welding, 16, 170, 285
Auto-tempered martensite, 406
Axial grains, 176, 178
Banding, 160, 163, 249–251
Basicity index, 85–89, 238
Bead shape, 294, 295
Bead tempering, 407, 408, 416
Bessel function, 50
Boundary layer, 153
Buoyancy force, 104, 107
Buttering, 289
Arc,
blow, 23, 34
efficiency, 37–41, 43, 46, 56, 63, 64, 319,
352, 373
fluid flow, 99–102
length, 113
oscillation, 188, 192–195, 210–212,
291–293, 300, 332, 338, 354
pulsation, 188, 193, 213, 300
stabilizers, 12
vibration, 192
Arc welding processes,
electroslag welding, 3, 6, 7, 24–27, 56,
393, 394, 406
flux-cored arc welding, 3, 6, 7, 22, 23,
36, 73, 79, 86, 88, 91
gas metal arc welding, 6, 19, 20, 32, 79
Carbide-forming elements, 394
Carbide precipitation,
in austenitic stainless steels, 435–437,
440–444, 446
in ferritic steel, 421, 422
in Ni-base alloys, 378
Carbon equivalent, 394, 416, 417
Cell spacing, 165, 204–209, 213, 327 (see
also dendrite arm spacing)
Cellular solidification, 156, 160
Circular patch test, 323, 330, 386
Coarsening, 165
455
456
INDEX
Columnar dendrites, 156, 157, 159
Competitive growth, 174, 176, 204
Convection ( see weld pool convection
and arc fluid flow)
Constitution diagrams, 223–226
Constitutional liquation, 306, 309–311,
330, 333
Constitutional supercooling, 156–160,
186, 187, 199, 200, 247, 318
Contact angle, 170, 171
Continuous cooling transformation
diagrams, 232, 236, 393, 402, 404,
406, 407
Contraction stresses, 284, 424
Cooling rate, 164, 204, 207, 212, 226–231,
249, 268, 274, 278, 291, 318, 325, 350,
351, 360, 398, 402–407, 425, 432, 437,
441, 442, 448
Crack susceptibility C-curves,
Ni-base alloys, 387–390
ferritic steels, 422
Cracking,
cold, 411, 423
delayed, 411
hot, 321, 353, 354, 376, 379, 384, 432
hydrogen, 12, 66, 75, 255, 294, 321, 328,
329, 393, 402, 406–408, 410–418, 428,
432 (see hydrogen cracking)
fatigue, 135, 139
intergranular, 263, 328, 419, 422, 430
liquation, 324–327, 335, 336
reheat, 376, 385, 390, 394, 418–422, 430
( see reheat cracking)
solidification, 66, 71, 170, 188, 192, 195,
212, 216, 243, 259, 263–300, 322, 330,
338, 392, 432 ( see solidification
cracking)
strain-age, 384, 385, 392
stress corrosion, 125, 255, 445, 446
toe, 135, 136, 413
underbead, 412, 413, 425, 426, 450 ( see
also lamellar tearing)
Critical transformation temperatures,
393, 394, 398
Current density distribution, 99, 101–103
Dendrite tip undercooling, 230, 248
Deoxidizer, 12, 66, 394
Deposition rate, 26
Diffusion of hydrogen, 76, 411, 412
Dihedral angle, 281, 282
Dilution ratio, 257, 285, 286, 288, 289,
330
Direct-current electrode positive, 15, 16,
19, 23
Direct-current electrode negative, 14, 17,
19, 259
Directional solidification, 147, 314
Dissimilar metal welds, 29, 33, 223, 252,
255, 257, 259
Distortion in weldments, 4, 11, 24, 25, 29,
32, 126–130, 294, 367, 389, 439
Ductile-brittle transition temperature,
406
Ductility curve, 277
Easy-growth directions, 175
Electrodes, 408, 423, 424
bias, 27
flux-core arc welding, 22–24
gas-metal arc welding, 19, 21–22,
41–43, 53, 65, 80
gas-tungsten arc welding, 15, 16, 41–43,
104
high hydrogen, 415
low carbon, 288
low hydrogen, 394, 402, 407, 409, 415,
432
plasma arc welding, 17, 18, 74
submerged arc welding, 66, 91, 92
shielded metal arc welding, 75, 76, 78,
84, 295, 296, 401, 417
tip angle, 45–47, 97–100, 102
Electrode coverings, 11–13, 22, 66, 75, 78,
84, 415
Electromagnetic pool stirring, 191
Electron beam welding, 3, 5, 6, 27–29, 43,
173, 207, 208, 227, 229, 279, 295, 332,
351, 354
Electroslag welding, 3, 6, 7, 24–27, 56,
394, 406
Epitaxial growth, 170–174, 184, 203 ( see
also nonepitaxial growth)
Equiaxed dendrites, 157 ( see also
nondendritic equiaxed zone)
Equiaxed grains, 181–186, 191, 193
Equilibrium partition ratio or
equilibrium segregation ratio, 145,
146
Degree of restraint, 284, 332
DeLong diagram, 224
Dendrite arm spacing, 164, 165, 204–213,
274
Dendrite fragmentation, 180, 181, 189,
192
Dendritic solidification, 156, 159
INDEX
457
Evaporation from weld pool, 28, 82, 91,
114, 115, 117
Ghost grain boundary, 310, 311
Gleeble (thermal simulator), 58, 59, 184,
323, 419, 421
GP zone, 354–364
Grain boundary ferrite, 232, 233, 237, 239
Grain boundary liquid, 282
Grain boundary liquation, 303, 309, 313,
321, 325, 327, 332, 336
Grain boundary migration, 310, 314
Grain boundary segregation, 315, 316
Grain detachment, 180, 181
Grain growth, 236, 310, 343–352,
394–396, 405, 432, 448, 449
Grain growth inhibitors, 405
Grain refining,
in fusion zone, 170, 180, 187–193, 197,
291, 292, 394, 398, 402, 407
in heat-affected zone, 394, 397–399,
402, 403, 407
Grain size, 60, 189, 192, 235–239, 283,
333–335, 349, 398, 402, 405, 448
Grain structure, 170–195
effect of welding parameters, 174
control of, 187, 291
Growth rate, 166, 200, 201
Fatigue, 131–140
beach marks, 132
extrusions, 131
intrusions, 131
joint design, 133
stress raisers, 134, 135
remedies, 135–137
Ferrite,
acicular, 66, 74, 88, 90, 233–239, 405
delta (d), 174, 216–223, 231, 232,
244–247, 279–281, 291, 295, 296, 431,
448, 449
grain boundary, 232, 233, 237, 239
side-plate, 233, 239, 398
Widmanstatten, 232, 233, 398
Ferrite content,
effect of cooling rate, 226–231
effect of multipass welding, 259
effect of nitrogen, 66, 71, 224
effect of reheating, 231
example of calculation, 290
prediction, 223–226
solidification cracking, 279, 289, 291
Ferrite morphology, 218–221, 259
Fluid flow ( see weld pool convection and
arc fluid flow)
Flux core arc welding, 3, 6, 7, 22, 23, 36,
73, 79, 86, 88, 91
Fluxes, 22, 23, 67, 82–88, 90, 91, 94, 97,
116, 117
FNN-1999, 226
Free energy of nucleation, 170
Free energy of reactions, 68
Freezing range or solidification
temperature range, 158, 159,
268–271
Friction stir welding, 370
Heat-affected zone softening,
Al alloys, 354, 373
Low alloy steels, 410
Ni-base alloys, 381–383
work-hardened materials, 343–351
Heat flow, 37–60
Adams equations, 51, 52
computer simulation, 54, 58
cooling rate, 55, 57
effect of preheating, 57
effect of welding parameters, 53
effect of weldment thickness, 57
Rosenthal’s equations, 48–51
Heat input, 4, 5, 41, 42, 332, 350, 351, 389
Heat source,
efficiency, 37–43
power-density distribution, 45, 57, 58,
107
current-density distribution, 47
Heat treatable alloy steels, 407
Heat treatable aluminum alloys, 353–371
Al-Cu-Mg, 359
Al-Mg-Si, 359
Al-Zn-Mg, 367
Heat treating of steels, 395
Helium, 14–16, 19, 31, 32
Heiple’s model, 109
Gas metal arc welding, 6, 19, 20, 32, 79
Gas-metal reactions, 68–82
hydrogen-metal, 68, 75
nitrogen-metal, 68, 71
oxygen-metal, 68, 73
Sievert’s law, 68
Gas tungsten arc welding, 6, 13, 18, 28,
56, 67, 78
active flux, 116, 117
Gas welding, 3, 6, 7–11, 74
Gaussian distribution, 47, 57, 100, 101
458
INDEX
Heterogeneous nucleation, 173, 180–199,
292
Heterogeneous nuclei, 181–184, 190, 234,
235
High-energy density welding processes, 3
electron beam welding, 27
laser beam welding, 29
Hot cracking in partially melted zone,
321–336 ( see also liquation
cracking)
Hot ductility test, 323, 324
Houldcroft test, 264, 265
HY-80 steel, 207, 212, 255, 328, 329, 406
Hydrogen cracking, 12, 66, 75
in martensitic stainless steels, 432, 450
in steels, 255, 328–329, 402, 406–408,
410–418
methods of reduction, 415
requirements, 411
test methods, 414
Hydrogen level,
effect on welds, 66
free energy of reaction, 68
solubility in weld pool, 70
measurement of, 76–78
methods of reduction, 78–82
Isothermal precipitation curves, 436, 439
Isothermal transformation diagrams,
410
Joint design, 7, 8, 251
Keyhole, 4, 17, 18, 27, 28, 43, 74, 80, 81,
127, 354
Knife-line attack, 432, 440–444
Lamellar tearing, 394, 422–425, 427
Laser,
CO 2 laser, 30, 31
diode laser, 31
YAG laser, 30, 108
Laser assisted gas metal arc welding, 32
Laser beam welding, 3, 6, 29, 30, 31, 36,
37, 60, 110, 128, 366
Laves, 276, 310
Lehigh cantilever test, 424
Lehigh restraint test, 414, 415,
Liquation, 303–336
constitutional, 306, 309–311, 319, 320,
330, 333
cracking, 321–327, 330–336 ( see also
hot cracking in partially melted
zone)
mechanisms, 304–314
temperature, 333
Liquidus surface, 217
Lorentz force, 104, 106, 107
Lorentz force field, 99, 101
Low hydrogen electrodes, 12, 75, 409
Implant test, 414
Inclusions, 66, 250, 251
fatigue initiation, 131
fracture initiation, 88
lamellar tearing, 422, 423, 427
liquation, 307–309
nitride, 72
nucleation site for acicular ferrite, 74,
233–237
oxide, 73, 88–90, 237
tungsten, 16
Inoculation, 188–190
Intergranular corrosion, 433, 436, 440,
442, 444, 447
Intergranular cracking,
hot cracking in partially melted zone
or liquation cracking, 321–327
hydrogen cracking, 328
postweld heat-treatment cracking or
reheat cracking, 385
reheat cracking, 418–422
solidification cracking, 263, 264
Interpass temperature, 57, 255, 256, 354,
369, 402, 405–409, 415, 416
Ionization potential, 15, 16
Iron nitride, 72
Macrosegregation, 255–259
Magnesium, 74, 115, 116
Magnetic field, 190 (see also arc
oscillation)
Manganese, 76, 84, 92, 116
Manganese/sulfur ratio, 288, 394
Maraging steel, 307, 309, 310
Marangoni convection, 109, 110 (see also
weld pool convection)
Martensite,
auto-tempered, 406
formation temperature, 405, 411
high carbon, 399–401
microstructure, 400, 403, 426, 448, 450
tempering, 406, 449
Melting efficiency, 44
INDEX
459
Mechanical properties
effect of annealing, 345
effect of ferrite content, 238, 279
effect of grain size, 187–188
effect o flux composition, 84
effect of inclusions and porosity, 250
effect of liquation, 329
effect of nitrogen content, 72
effect of oxygen content, 75, 89
effect of oxygen/acetylene ratio, 74
effect of porosity, 81
Mercury method, 77
Metal transfer, 19, 21, 22, 74, 116, 326
short-circuiting, 21
globular, 21
spray, 21
Microsegregation, 160–163, 232, 243–249,
268, 333, 334, 399, 401
Mushy zone, 179–182, 187, 275
effect on grain size, 236
effect of oxygen/acetylene ratio, 74
Partially grain refining, 396–403
Partially melted zone, 303–336
liquation cracking or hot cracking,
321–327
ductility loss, 328, 329, 354
hydrogen cracking, 328
liquation mechanism, 304–314
Partially mixed zone, 252
Phase diagrams,
Al-Cu, 306, 356
Al-Mg-Si, 331
Fe-Cr-Ni, 217, 220, 227, 434
Fe-C, 281, 318, 395, 434
Fe-Cr, 434
Fe-Cr-C, 447, 449
Ni-base, 377
304 stainless steel, 437
Phosphorus, 280
Planar solidification, 156, 159, 160, 316
Plasma arc welding, 3, 6, 17–19, 40, 42,
74, 80, 81, 354, 366
Polarity, 14, 15, 17, 19, 74, 80, 81, 91, 92,
354, 366
Pool shape, 54, 55
Porosity,
fatigue initiation, 131
in aluminum alloys, 66, 80, 81, 95, 252,
257, 259, 354
in copper, 82
in steel, 10, 28, 89, 90, 394
Post-solidification phase transformations,
ferrite-austenite, 216–232
austenite-ferrite, 232–239
Postweld heat treating,
Al alloys, 354, 363–370
effect on distortion, 130
steels, 79, 125, 127, 407–410, 416
Ni-base alloys, 384–386
stainless steels, 432, 439, 442, 450, 451
Postweld heat-treatment cracking,
384–390 ( see also reheat cracking)
Powder metallurgy, 257
Power density, 3, 4, 11, 27, 28, 45 ( see
also power density distribution)
Power density distribution, 45–47, 57, 58,
101–103, 107
Precipitation hardening, 353, 358, 359,
375, 379, 405
Preheat, 56, 57, 125, 130, 255, 256, 294,
394, 402, 404, 405–410, 415–417
Natural aging, 353, 359–365, 367–370
Ni-base alloys, 310, 375–390
compositions, 376
constitutional liquation, 309, 310
heat-affected zone softening, 376, 381,
383
partially-melted zone cracking or
liquation cracking, 335, 376
precipitation reaction, 376
reheat cracking, 376, 384–390
solidification cracking, 268–271,
273–276
typical welding problems, 376
Nitride formers, 66, 72, 405, 432
Nitrogen, 65–72, 224–226
Nondendritic equiaxed zone, 184, 185,
195
Nonepitaxial growth, 175
Nucleation in weld metal
mechanisms, 178–187
acicular ferrite, 233–235
heterogeneous ( see also
heterogeneous nucleation)
Nuclei ( see heterogeneous nuclei)
Oxyacetylene welding process, 3–11, 74
Oxygen/acetylene ratio, 74
Oxygen equivalence, 73
Oxygen equivalent, 237, 238
Oxygen level, 66–70, 73–76, 83, 87, 89, 91
effect of basicity index, 83, 87
effect on acicular ferrite, 235–238

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