Accent – a manner of pronouncing the language. Everybody speaks with an accent of one
Acoustic phonetics – deals with the physical properties of speech when sound waves in the air.
Acquisition – development of language by using it naturally in communicate situations.
Acrolect – variety closer to the external model.
Acronyms – words from intial letters of a set of other words:laser, scuba, radar, snafu.
Adjectives – provide more information about the things referred to (happy people)
Adverbs – provide more information about the actions and events
Affective filter – acquisition barrier that results from negative feelings or experiences: embarrassment, unwillingness, lack of empathy with other culture (eg. hatred), dull textbooks, unpleasant classroom surroundings.
Affricates – stopping the airstream and obstructed release: [ch], [dg]
Agreement – whether the parts of speech ‘agree’ with each other.
Allomorphs – different versions of the same morpheme.
Alphabetic script – ca 3k years ago
Alphabetic writing – written symbols representing a single sound:1. Arabic and Hebrew were based on it. 2. Cyrillic alphabet in Russia.
Alternate sign language – older concept of sign language as a limited set of gestures used instead of real language; a system of gestures developed by speakers for limited communication in specific context where speech can't be used (i.e. some religions,Aborigines)
Alveolars – front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l].
Alveo-palatals – tongue at the front of the palate near alveolar ridge: [sh], [ch], [dg].
Analogy – words are formed in a similar way to the existing ones (eg. yuppie from hippe).
Antonymy – words with opposite meanings: gradable antonyms – can be used in comparative constructions; negative of one word: doesn’t have to imply the other (big – small => bigger than), non-gradable antonyms (complementary pairs) – no comparative constructions, negative of one form implies the other (dead – alive), reversives – one word doesn’t mean negative of the other (tie – untie != not tie).
Approximants (semi-wovels, glides)- [w], [y], [l], [h]
Arbitrariness – no natural connection between sound and its meaning; the writing form has no iconic relationship with the real concept (seeing the word ‘dog’ we cannot eg. determine from its shape that it means the four-legged barking animal).
Articulatory phonetics – study about how speech is made (‘articulated’).
Artificial intelligence – making machines do things requiring intelligence if done by men.
ASL – American Sign Language (Ameslan) – kind of underground language used in only deaf-deaf interaction; developed from French sign language used in Paris school in XVIII century and then was brought to the USA.
Assimilation – some aspect of one phoneme is copied by the other (eg. nasalizing [n] in I
Auditory (perceptual) phonetics – perception of sounds via the ear.
Backformation – reducing one word (noun) to create other form (verb):television => to televise, option => to opt, donation => to donate.
Basilect – basic variety of language.
Bilabials – sounds produced using both upper and lower lips: [p], [b], [m].
Bilingualism – knowing two distinct languages.
Blending – joining the beginning of one word and the ending of another to create new word: smog (smoke + fog), brunch (breakfast + lunch), Chunnel (Channel + tunnel.
Borrowing – taking over the words from other languages: alcohol (Arabic), piano (Italian), robot (Czech), zebra (Bantu).
Bow-wow theory – language developed from onomatopoeic sounds of nature (eg. bow-wow, cuckoo, bang, boom, splash) or natural cries of emotion (pain, anger, joy –eg. Ah!, Hey!, Wow!, Yuck!).
Cave drawings – ca. 20k years ago
Clay tokens (drawings on pottery) – ca. 10k years ago
Clipping – reducing certain elements of the word (abbreviating):gasoline => gas, cabriolet => cab, fanatic => fan.
Co-articulation effects – making one sound almost at the same time as the next oneinconversational speech.
Coherence – arriving at interpretation, making sense of what one reads or hears.
Cohesion – the ties and connection within the text, that make it logical.
Coinage – invention of totally new items, eg. trade names for one company’s product which become general terms: aspirin, xerox, Teflon.
Collocation – which words frequently go together:butter – bread, salt – pepper.
common ancestral language: majority principle – the majority of words retained the original sound and the minority, changed a little through time, development principle – certain types of sound-change are very common, others very unlikely.
Communicative linguistics signal – intentional, used to communicate (express) something directly.
Comparative reconstruction – reconstructing what must have been the original form in the
Compounding – joining two separate words into a single form:bookcase, sunburn, wallpaper, textbook.
Conjunctions – connect and indicate relationships between things and events (although)
Constancy under negation: My car is (not) a wreck = I have a car.
Conversation – activity where speakers take turns at speaking. When the speaker indicates that he has finished, he signals a completion point.
Conversion – change in the function of a word, when a noun comes to be used as a verb without any reduction:paper – to paper the bedroom walls, butter – to butter the bread
Co-operative principle – our contribution to conversation must be appropriate. Four maxims: Quantity: make your contribution as informative as required, not more, not less,Quality: do not say for what you lack evidence or that is untrue, do not gossip,Relation: be relevant to the topic, Manner: be clear, brief and orderly.
creative construction – generating structures based on overgeneralization
Creole – Pidgin, which evolved into first language of communication.
Cultural transmission – we don’t inherit the language from our parents, we acquire it inthe culture of other speakers of it, language is passed from one generation to the next.
Deep – abstract level of organization, involving structural interpretation
Deictic expressions – can be understood only in their physical context:1. person deixis: me, you, him, them, 2. place deixis: here, ther, 3. time deixis: now, then, last week.
Dentals – tongue tip behind the upper front teeth: [th].
Derivation – adding a affixes to the words:1. refixes - at the beginning of the word (un-, dis-) 2. suffixes – at the end of the word (-ish, -ful) 3. infixes – not present in English – adding affix inside the word (unfuckingbelievable!.
Dialect – also involves the differences in writing.
Dictation systems – create written text from speech.
Direct speech act - eg. question Did he..?, Are they…? used to ask the question (get the information).
Discourse analysis – understanding what speakers mean despite what they say, taking part in a course of conversation.
Discreteness – each sound in the language is treated as discrete, i.e. change in pronunciation of one sound leads to a change in meaning of the word, eg pack vs back.
displacement – ability to relate to events far from here and now (past or future,somewhere else);we can talk about things and places whose existence we cannot be sure of –mythical creatures, demons, angels, Santa Claus.
Duality – two levels of language (sound and meaning): 1. distinct sounds – they carry no meaning when put individually. 2. distinct meanings – we can combine sounds to express different meanings (messages).
Elision – omitting the sound segment that would be present in the pronunciation of the word in isolation (eg. [himesbi] for he must be).
ELIZA – simulator of psychotherapist in form of computer terminal
Epenthesis – addition of sound to the middle of a word (aemtig>empty, spinel>spindle)
Error – indicates the process of acquisition taking place rather than failure; it is a clue to the progress made by a student.
Face: negative – the need to be independent and free from imposition, positive – the need to be connected, to belong, to be a member of the group
face-saving act – lessens possible threat to someone else’s face, eg. indirect speech acts (Could you give me that salt, please?).
face-threatening act – eg. direct orders to show the social power over somebody (Give me that salt!)
Flap – pronouncing eg. [t] similarly to [d] – AmE
Forensic phonetics – speaker identification, analysis of recorded utterances for legal purpose.
form or another.
Fossilisation – when learners develop features which do not match L2.
Fricatives – blocking the airstream and letting it go through the narrow opening (friction):[f], [v], [th], [s], [z], [s], [ż]
Generative grammar (by Chomsky)– explicit system of formalized rules from mathematical view of language, using finite set of rules to generate infinite number of sentences.
Glossogenetics – addresses biological formation and development of human language, describes unique human features that enable people to use and develop language
Glottal stop – closing the vocal cords and then releasing it: [?], eg. Uh-uh meaning ‘no’
Glottals –without use of the tounge or any other parts: [h].
Glottis – space between the vocal cords and larynx.
Grammatical gender – in terms of grammatical form
Homonymy – one form has more than one unrelated (separate) meaning:bank (of a river) – bank (institution), hands (watch) – hands (human body).
Homophony – two different written forms have the same pronunciation (homophones): bare – bear, meat – meet, sew – so.
Hypocorisms (AmE) – reducing word into one syllable and adding -y or –ie:Aussie (Australian), bookie (bookmaker), hankie (handkerchief).
Hyponymy – meaning of one form is included in another:dog – animal, carrot-vegetable.
Ideograms – pictures representing abstract, derived ideas rather than literal concepts.
Indirect speech act – using a form, which performs different action than it would suggest: You left the door open. = Close the door.
Inference – additional information used by the listener to connect what is said to what must be meant (I enjoy listening to Mozart).
Inflectional – do not make new words, but indicate grammatical function of a word (never changes grammatical category of the word).
Informative linguistics signal – unintentional, carrying some kind of indirect information (eg sneezing =having a cold, yawning = being bored).
Input – language the learner is exposed to. It has to be comprehensible (foreigner talk simplified version of language).
Interactional – humans use the language to interact with each other (socializing, expressing emotions).
Interlanguage –system used in L2 acquisition consisting of aspects of L1 and L2 but having rules of its own.
Isogloss – boundary between the areas with one particular linguistic item.
Labiodentals – formed with upper teeth and lower lip: [f], [v].
Lateralized brain – specialized functions on each of the two hemispheres: 1. left hemisphere – language, analytic functions, tool-using etc. 2. ability to construct more complex messages
Learning – conscious process of accumulating knowledge of the language. Maths is learnt.
Linguistic context – words used in the same phrase or sentence, which has strong impact on the meaning of the word.
Linguistic etiquette – knowledge which structures are ‘proper’ or ‘best’ to be used in the
listeners/receivers.
Loan-translation, calque – direct translation of the elements of words into borrowing language:teenager = nastolatek.
Logograms – used by Sumerians in form of cuneiform (‘wedge-shaped’) writing; the for gives no clue to what is being referred to by the symbols.
Meaning of the word: 1.conceptual – basic, literal components of meaning (needle = thin, sharp, steel instrument), 2.associative – connotations of the word (needle = pain).
Mental grammar – subconscious internal linguistic knowledge which helps to produce and recognize appropriately structured expressions.
Mesolect – slightly different variety.
Metathesis – reversal in position of two corresponding sounds (frist>first, hros>horse).
Methods of teaching:grammar-translation method – long lists of words and grammar rules to be memorized, focus on written form; traditional approach to Latin, audiolingual method– emphasizing the spoken language, drills, developing ‘habits, communicative approaches – focus on functions of language rather than form(grammar), organizing lessons around certain topics.
Metonymy – based on a close everyday connection: container-contents: bottle – coke, can – juice.
Minimal pair – two words are identical in form but differ in one phoneme in the same
Minimal set – the same as above, but there are more than two words.
Morpheme – the smallest unit of meaning that the word can be divided into.
Morphemes: free – can stand by themselves as single words. Lexical – carry the content of messages we convey (boy, man, house, tiger etc.)functional – closed class of words that have some function (articles, pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions – and, but, when, on, in)Bound– cannot stand alone, they are attached to another form:derivational – make new words of a different grammatical category from the stem (can change grammatical category of the word).
Morphology – the study of forms in language (morphemes).
Morphs – forms to realize morphemes.
Motivation: those who experience some success are more motivated to learn, learner who is willing to guess and take a risk is likely to be more successful.
Nasals – airstream through the nose: [m], [n], [ng]
Natural gender – from biological distinction between male and female
Navigators – computer programs that follow simple spoken commands.
Negative transfer (interference) – not effective for L2 communication if L1 features differ from those of L2.
Negotiated input – requesting clarification and active attention on what is said.
Neologism – new word in the language which can be quickly understood.
Non-directionality – anyone can pick up linguistic signals, not only their original
NORMS – non-mobile, older, rural, male speakers.
Nouns – refer to people, objects, things, creatures, abstract ideas.
Open glottis – voiceless sounds.
Optimum age – 10 to 16 years old – for learning a second language.
Oralism – a teaching method for deaf people required that students practised English speech sounds and developed lip reading skill (this method wasn't successful);
Output – language produced by the learner in meaningful interaction. Crucial point of taskbased
Parsers – work from left to right along an incoming English sentence, create an analysis and
Person – distinctions of ...
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