NR 19 i 20 ANTROPOMOTORYKA 1999
CONTENTS
FROM EDITORS
Jan Szopa – Dear Readers
DISSERTATIONS AND ARTICLES
Jan Szopa, Wiesław Chwała, Tadeusz Ruchlewicz – Identification, Structure and Validity of Testing of Motor Abilities
Małgorzata Żychowska – The Effects of Differentiated Ambient Temperature on Physiological and Biochemical Traits During Repeated Wingate Tests
Adam Żuchowicz, Ryszard Kubica, Aleksander Tyka, Małgorzata Żychowska, Tomasz Pałka – Exercise Thermoregulation After Physical Training in Warm and Temperate Environments
Albertas Skurvydas, Jan Jaščanin, Jerzy Eider – Low Frequency Fatigue (LFF) of Quadriceps Muscle During Eccentric Exercise
Albertas Skurvydas, Jan Jaščanin, Jerzy Eider – Verification of Hypotheses of “Myofibrillic“ and “Calcic“ post-tetanic Potentiation of Muscle
Wiesław Osiński, Tadeusz Mieczkowski – Effects of Physical Training on Weight Reduction, Body Composition and Motor Fitness in Overweight Women Aged 50-59 and 60-69
Stanisław Sterkowicz – Differences in the Specific Movement Activity of Men and Women Practising Judo
Edward Mleczko, Tadeusz Ambroży, Jan Szopa, Małgorzata Żychowska – The Influence of Environmental Pollution on Somatic and Functional Development of Children and Young People from the Cracow Region, Poland
REVIEW ARTICLES
Jan Szopa – About the Motority Structure – an Attempt to the System Approach
Włodzimierz Starosta – Movements Symmetrization – a New Concept of Motor Learning in Sport
Stanisław Żak – The Necessity of Relative Estimation of Motor Fitness
Elżbieta Budkiewicz, Renata Mroczek – Bibliography of Contains of the Journal “Antropomotoryka” (Studies in Human Motoricity) for Years 1989 – 1999)
According to the suggestion of Polish Academy of Science and – dynamically developing – International Association of Sport Kinetics, we decided to transform our Journal “Antropomotoryka” (till now edited in Polish) to “Journal of Human Kinetics”. We hope, that this transformation shall enable to realize two main purposes:
promotion of Polish physical culture sciences in perspective of our entrance to “Common Europe”,
creating possibilities of international exchange of results of many investigations conducting by members of IASK.
We are very obliged to our Collegous for acceptation of our proposal to take part in Editorial Board. This fact is a guarantee both of high level of our journal and of its broad promotion in the world.
Because of a very short term of preparing materials to the first number, it contains an articles only Polish Authors, mainly from Cracow center. Apart from them we hope, that it will be interesting and enable to know the main problems of our actually investigations. We are sure that starting from number 2, a “circle” of Authors shall be much broadened.
The aim of the study was to establish elementary structure of motor abilities based on structural — energetic principles and validity of indirect testing using various types of motor tests. The examined group included 243 persons (91 women and 143 men aged 21– 23) — students of Univ. School of Phys. Educ., not practising competitive sports. This group can be characterised as having fully developed motor potential and relatively uniformed level of motor skills. 104 tests involving elementary parameters characterising muscle work (speed of involvement, maximal values and rate of strength decreasing) during isometric and dynamic contractions were run in laboratory conditions. Additionally, 13 motor fitness tests were conducted to check testing validity as a measures of particular abilities. Three — stage factor analysis and taxonomic method of Ward were applied to reduce the number of parameters and to select the most representative ones: they were selected for the stage III and treated as “golden standards”. Markers and Ward analysis were used to establish further tests validity by their individual confrontation with the whole “area” of motor abilities.
It was found that all the parameters can be grouped into 7 main abilities: global strength, local strength, anaerobic alactacid and lactacid power, speed of muscles mobilisation, maximal oxygen uptake and muscles resistance to tiredness. They have common biological backgrounds and cover all “potential side” of motority having structural — energetic roots (“health – related fitness”). The tests of highest validity are: “medicine ball throw backward” (global strength), “arm bent” (local strength), “standing long jump” (MAP), “shuttle run 4 x 10 m” (speed of muscles mobilisation), “300 m run” (lactacid MAP), “Cooper Test” (maximal oxygen uptake) and “sit – ups” (muscle resistance to tiredness).
Key words: Motor abilities, Motor tests validity, Multivariate analysis
The aim of the study was to analyse the indices determining the maximal anaerobic power and related to its physiological and biochemical components during repeatetive Wingate Tests at three ambient temperatures (24°, 32° and 37°) at stable humidity (50%). The investigated group included 14 men at the age of 20–22, students of Univ. School of Physical Education, with different levels of training. Before, during and after efforts (done in thermo-climatic chamber) the following parameters were registered:
Mechanical ones, characterising maximal power (number of rotations, time of developing the maximal power, values of maximal and relative power, the rate of power decrease, the average power).
physiological; temperatures of skin, muscle and rectum, HR, Ht
biochemical: [H+], [HCO3]-, [Na+], [K+], [Cl-], level of lactates.
As far as it was possible with such a small sample, the statistical characteristics (_, SD) were calculated. Apart from total group characteristics, the individual variability was estimated for each parameter. Calculations were done for two groups divided according to the maximum power criterion.
It was found, that external temperature had a definite impact on all analysed parameters, especially the mechanical ones and body thermo-regulation. Optimal temperature for reaching the maximal anaerobic power was 32° C. Twenty minutes’ rest proved too short for full recovery, but it had no influence on the results of the next test.
Significant and multidirectional inter — individual differentiation resulting from the level of training point out to the fact that while testing humans we should take into account the heterogeneity of examined groups. It means that the same methods should be used in human physiology as in other biological sciences (sample size, representativity, limitation of statistical methods).
Small size of examined group and “averaging” of their results must be treated as certain incorrectness (especially while estimating the scale of the phenomena), and generalisation of results to the whole population is not justified.
Key words: Exercise physiology — Wingate Test — Thermo-regulation
The main aim of studies was to evaluate the effect of ten days exercise training (ET) and exercise-thermal training (ETT) on the level of thermoregulatory reactions during control long lasting exercise test (CET) and standard exercise test (ST) by which the values of maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max) were estimated.
Ten men were taken as subjects. The other ten were controls (without physical training).
The experimental approach resulted from the hypothesis that the same value of thermal stimulus i.e. the equal change in rectal temperature will cause the same effect in exercise thermoregulatory reactions. In ET each training unit lasted 90 mins and and the level of Tre at the end of that exercise were taken as a criterion for the duration of the period of ETT training. Therefore in ETT training procedure the training units were shorter because the same rectal temperature increase were achieved earlier than during ET.
The following physiological indices: oxygen uptake (VO2), rectal (Tre), muscle (Tmusc.), and skin (Tsk) temperatures, level of dehydration (%DBwt), sweating rate (SR), plasma volume changes (%DPV) and haematocrit (Hct) in the course of CET as well as maximum oxygen uptake during ST were analysed.
The obtained results have shown that both the ET and ETT training programmes improved the efficiency of exercise thermoregulation however the ETT training with shorter training units gave the very similar results in exercise thermoregulation as the exercise training program, but is more sparing in utilisation of energy sources.
Key words: exercise thermoregulation, physical training, haematocrit, rectal, muscle and vastus lateralis temperatures.
Healthy men (age 25,4±1,75) (n=12) (weight 74,3±6.2) gave their informed consent to take part in experiments. Experiment was designed to examine changes in muscle force generating capacity after intermittent voluntary eccentric exercise. All voluntary and electrostimulation-induced muscle contractions were registered before work, 2 min (A2), 20 min (A20) and 24 h (A24) after work. Our main finding is that immediately after work there was statistically significant (p<0.05) decrease in force at low stimulation frequencies (10 and 20 Hz) as compared to that of 50 Hz. In addition, there is smaller decrease in maximum isometric voluntary force and jump height than in forces evoked by electrostimulation. At 20 min and 24 h after exercise there were no changes in contractile properties, evoked by electrostimulation.
Key words: skeletal muscle, eccentric exercise, low frequency fatigue, jumping, electrostimulation.
The aim of the study was to determine the effect of pattern of tetanic stimulation on the time course of subsequent twitches tension. The quadriceps muscle of healthy men (n=9) (aged 28–37) (weight 74,3±6.2) was studied. The following data were registered: the twitch force of the quadriceps muscle (Pt), muscle contraction time (CT) and half force relaxation time (RT) during twitch. Experimental protocol: a single twitch was evoked before and 500 ms, 1 s, 3 s, 5 s, 10 s, 30 s, 60 s after 5-s of 50 Hz stimulus train. Following muscle stimulation at 50 Hz there was a considerable increase (p<0.05) in Pt but RT decreased (p<0.05) and didn’t recover after 60 s following electrostimulation. Thus, it has been established that in the period from 0.5 s to 3 s immediately after a brief muscle stimulation there occur considerable changes in Pt, CT and RT which should be considered when analysing Pt, CT and RT.
Key words: skeletal muscle, twitch contraction, post-tetanic potentiation
The main objective of this study was evaluation of the changes of basic somatic characteristics and motor fitness following the 18-day physical training with dietary intervention offered to women with moderate obesity. This program was carried out for 10 years for different groups of volunteers. 604 women aged 50-59 (BMI= 31,96 ± 4,46 kg/m2) and 102 women 60–69 years (BMI = 30,34 ± 5,18 kg/m2) were considered. The control group consisted of 2426 women aged 20-29 (BMI= 30,12 ± 5,00 kg/m2). The exercise programme involved, first of all, a variety of aerobic activities (5,5 hours daily); supplemented by a controlled diet.
The following conclusions were drawn: 1) similar positive effects of the programme on the reduction of body mass, BMI, body circumference and thickness of skinfolds were found irrespective of age, 2) smaller but positive changes in motor performance were found in the groups of older women , 3) the effects of exercise treatment on individual elements of the body weight, body composition and the tested elements of motor performance were varied.
Key words: Obesity, physical training, physical fitness
The purpose of this work was to characterize current tendencies in training and determine the differences between sports fighting of women (n=151) and men (n=241) during the Olympic Judo Tournament in Atlanta. The average age of the competitors was ca. 25 years.
The analysis of records of 527 fights made available to the author by International Judo Federation revealed the fact that women won less often than men before the time was over. In both groups mainly throws and the ability to force the opponent into penalty situations achieved the victory.
Women more often than men used holds and less often risky throws with a fall during the attack. In both groups the greater the frequency of a given type of attack, the lower the score, which shows that surprise, was a significant factor. Another characteristic feature of female athletes was the lower intensity of action during the attack and especially the frequency of penalties than in men who were better able to use the time of the fight.
On the basis of general data concerning sports participation of women and men in the competitions it is possible to prepare individual and group characteristics. The explanation of the differences in the fighting techniques between women and men lies probably in the level of their body build, physical and mental preparation.
Key words: movement activity, judo.
The study was conducted in the Cracow region; a group of 4098 young people was tested, including 2021 girls and 2077 boys aged 7–18 , inhabiting the zone around Cracow which is one most severely polluted regions in Poland. The study involved checking the structural and functional traits, height, body mass and oxygen capacity. Motor abilities were measured indirectly through motor fitness tests. To determine how the level of environment pollution may impact upon biological development during the main periods of ontogenesis, the results were calculated for three age groups: 7–10, 11–14, 15–18. The participants were divided depending on the level of contamination in their place of abode : up to 80% above the Polish norm for protected areas, 80–150% above the norm and more than 150% above the norm. The results of earlier tests reveal that these groups did not differ significantly with the social and economical status of their families and motional activity of children (Ambroży 1997). The material was then analysed using basic statistical techniques so as to find the possible relationship between the high contamination level and reduced levels of: oxygen capacity, co-ordination abilities (especially those more complex ones) and those motor abilities, which were not correlated with somatic traits. No adverse effects of environment pollution on height, body mass and flexibility were found. Accordingly, the hypothesis of higher eco-sensitivity of functional traits rather than structural ones under the negative influence of natural environment could be proved.
Problems involved in human motority are very complex. Due to presence of numerous internal and external factors the existing attempts to classify them and develop the finitions and standards are fraught with serious difficulties. Moreover, the knowledge required for the studies of human motion comes from several fields and has to be adapted to the specificity of physical education domain. These branches of knowledge, relatively young exist on the borderline with other spheres, and do not always provide the precise theoretical basis. The researchers have to make their own choice, which may lead to difficulties while communicating not only with the specialists from other fields, but also with those involved in the same research. As an extreme example one can mention here the notion of “motor traits”, widely used in Poland (attributing biological aspects to results of motor efficiency tests) or the concepts of “health — related fitness” and “performance related fitness” which appeared lately (mostly in USA). These problems will be discussed in more detail in further sections. Another important problem is the adequacy of testing, up till now identified with test reliability. Our communications may lead to many misunderstandings due to the absence of the reference system (so-called “golden standards”) and incorrect treatment of results of motor fitness tests (often well-chosen intuitively), regarded as the measure of their biological foundations.
Actually, it is a complicated problem, as “population” tests are usually supplemented — in undefined degree — with motority skill tests. That leads to misuse of qualifications of biological terms “development” or “genetic conditioning” in relation to the results of fitness tests.
In the present work we shall introduce the general concepts proposed by the “Polish motority school”, developed in 1988 — 1998 in academic centres of Cracow and Katowice.
These notions are based on biological foundations developed by a Polish scientist Z. Gilewicz (1964). We make a further attempt to use the developments in order to precisely define and systemise the notions on the scientific basis; as well as to work out the basis for checking the test validity. It is a well-established fact that every movement of a man is the effect of co-operation of biological basis (movement apparatus, energy sources, steering processes), of practical experiences (motor skills) and psychosocial environment (psyche, aims of movements, justification etc). The distinction between the motion potential side (to be able, to want, to know) and the effective side (movement process and its effects) also seems well founded. This first aspect is the domain of basic sciences, the second belongs to the field of physical education.
1. Potential side
The fundamental stage distinguished in proposed structure are predispositions, understood as relatively elementary structural and functional traits of an organism in a significant extent determined genetically, which can be measured using the techniques of basic sciences. In different combinations and in different degree they will determine the potential of human motion, so-called motor abilities. These will be discussed in more detail in the further sections.
Certain expressions call for further explanations. First of all, the expression “relatively elementary”: in spite of theoretical possibility of determining the fundamental and theoretically existing possibilities of qualification of most elementary traits (also gene structure), in practice implies the necessity of analysing a large number of traits in laboratory conditions, using very expensive apparatus. Furthermore, the tradition in many fields of knowledge (e.g. physiology) provides more adequate though more complex measures in relation to their elementary components. Thus this stage will involve the features differing in a degree of being “elementary”, such e.g. the response time, structure of muscle fibres or the effort heart rate. Some of thus defined “predispositions” (Szopa 1989, 1992, Szopa et.al. 1996, Szopa et.al. 1999), e.g. VO2 max, space orientation etc. will be transferred to the “higher” level of the structure, in consideration of their complexity (motor abilities). The expression “significant genetic determination” requires an explanation, too. It is well known that quantitative traits display various levels of genetic control (see Bouchard et.al 1997) — from very weak to comparatively strong. The word “significant” should therefore exclude the “traits” dependent on environmental conditions only – those having only external effect — while the list must not be restricted to the traits of strong genetic determination.
In the light of prevailing biological aspects, the predispositions can be categorised in four groups:
A) morphological — structural
These include the basic traits characterising the state of the motion system and these anatomical conditions which are major determinants of the motor efficiency. This is the groups where the genetic aspects are the strongest: length and width of the skeleton, body proportions (especially of osseous lever mainspring), number of myons, proportion of muscles fast fibres to slow fibres (FT/ST), muscles innervating, flexibility. We can also include here the traits of weaker genetic control, such as fat mass (negative predisposition), lean body mass LBM — etc.
B) energetic
These include the measurable [as far as possible] traits characterising efficiency of mechanisms releasing the energy for muscles work, such as: the level of phosphocreatinum, efficiency of glycolytic enzymes, of Krebs cycle, of respiratory chain, main parameters of circulatory system (heart volume, number of erythrocytes, haemoglobin rate) and respiratory parameters.
C) senso-motoric — control
These are based on neuro-physiological mechanisms of motion control. The most important point is that the centres situated in different levels of central nervous system (association and motorial centres of cortex, basis ganglia etc.) should co-operate, thus we get a pyramid-like system. That includes all kinds of motor response (Tarnecki et.al 1991): inborn reactions (generated by hereditary neurones systems), acquired motor response (conditional on development of motorial programmes in CNS centres and the efficiency of interneuronal connections), and postural movements — dependent on functioning of central co-ordinating programmes integrating the activity of optical, tactile, kinestetic and equilibrium receptors and of motorial centres. Leaving aside the motion control stages identified by biocybernetics, (programme, realisation, correction), we assume the following to be the basic predispositions:
— quality of receptors functioning (eyesight, hearing, touch, equilibrium, kinestetic feeling),
— efficiency of starting the existing motorial programmes,
— ability of neurons to create new neural networks,
— nerve-muscle co-ordination,
— ability to create new motorial programmes (the efficiency of motorial centres of brain cortex).
Considering the present state of knowledge it is difficult — or even impossible
— to directly measure the above-mentioned predispositions. Thus we are justified to resort to some available (or newly developed) psychomotor tests, which check:
— simple reaction time to optical, acoustic and tactile stimuli (co-ordination of receptors, centres and effectors within reflexive bows),
— complex reaction time (reaction to various stimuli expressed with different parts of body), also to moving objects,
— precision of movements (exactitude of movement),
— frequency of movements (the equilibrium of actuating and braking processes),
— rhythm of movements,
— rate of learning,
— accuracy of learning,
— persistence of learning.
D) psychological predispositions
These are involved in man’s personality and as such are the subject of psychological studies. Without going into in details, we will signal only, that these include: temperament, motivation, will-power, intelligence — very important in attaining the definite motor results. Their “elementary” nature is questionable and complexity so considerable that they should be transferred to a higher level of the structure, that is motor abilities.
While discussing the predispositions, we must bear in mind that their importance manifest itself only during movement. It is obvious that every movement will require the predispositions from all of groups. However, depending on general characteristics of the type of movement (kind of muscular work, time of effort duration, intensity, complexity), and considering their common biological foundations we can group them in complexes called “motor abilities” (Szopa 1989, Szopa et.al 1996). This term and its range of application is a most controversial problem in kinesiology; since this notion is partly theoretical (Raczek 1990, Osiński 1990); while its complexity implies that it combines the potential and effective aspects of motion. No adequate tests for these abilities were available, (the former were called strength, speed, endurance and co-ordination abilities);
Important research work done in Poland in recent years, based on measurements of a large numbers (even 100) of primary parameters (predispositions), (Szopa and Latinek 1998, Szopa et.al. 1999) using the multidimensional statistical analysis (three stages factor analysis and taxonomic analysis) allowed to achieve the three main goals:
l Identifying the features most accurately characterising each group of predispositions (so called “golden standards”),
l Determining the interrelations between groups of predisposition, and thus also qualification of kinds and structures of motor abilities,
l Defining the methods and validity of testing the analysed abilities.
The immediate result, together with those obtained by the researchers from “Katowice school” (Mynarski 1998, Juras et.al 1998, Waśkiewicz et.al. 1998) was the ready definition of motor abilities, and the consequence — more distinct separation between the potential and effective aspects of motority and closer relations between motor abilities classification and their biological basis (thus the “complexity” was reduced).
We would propose the following definition:
“Motor abilities are groups of interrelated predispositions integrated by their common biological basis and movement backgrounds, measurable in a valid and comprehensive manner”.
In the light of this definition the motorial aspect — being a utilisation of ability is partially transferred to effective side, which makes the structure more clear.
Basing on the above criteria as well as obtained results, we can distinguish at present at least 10 kinds of motor ability grouped in four complexes:
1. Strength abilities — understood as readiness of an organism to overcome the external or its own body resistance in movements at low speed and under considerable load.
a) ability of developing the maximal absolute static strength. It determine the possibilities of developing the maximum moment of strenght (absolute and relative) by all muscles. Since thus defined ability is in fact impossible to measure, we would recommend the measurements of maximal moments of strenght for the largest groups of extensors during stabilised, isometric contraction, in laboratory conditions.
The “medicine ball throw backwards” proved to be the most valid indirect test.
Main predispositions involved in these abilities are: transverse area of muscles, proportions of os...
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