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APPSession02-3-2007-Payne-print
Applied Phonetics and
Phonology
How Speech Sounds are Produced
Speech sounds are produced by a moving
column of air in a resonating chamber Û just
like a musical instrument.
English Phonetics
and Phonology:
Different sounds are produced by varying
the speed of the column of air, the size and
shape of the resonating chamber, and by
introducing various kinds of vibrations into
the column.
English Consonants
Qlj M^vkb) QBPLI ^q E^kv^kd Rkfsbopfqv /--4
How Speech Sounds are Produced
How Speech Sounds are Produced
This is why different musical
instruments sound different.
By changing the speed of the column of
air, the shape of the resonator, and the
kind of vibration introduced into the air
stream , we produce the phonetic
differences that constitute the sounds of
speech.
This is also why different people
sound different when they talk.
Classification of Consonants
Classification of Consonants
Most English consonants can be classified
using three articulatory parameters:
Voicing: vibration or lack of vibration of the
vocal folds.
Place of Articulation: the point at which the air
stream is most restricted.
Manner of Articulation: What happens to the
moving column of air.
Meet Sammy, the sagittal diagram: Our phonetic
phriend:
.
Classification of Consonants
Classification of Consonants
Bilabial sounds are pronounced with the lips
together. Here Sammy is pronouncing a [p]:
To make the sound [m], Sammy simply lowers
his velum, to allow the column of air to pass
through his nose:
Qefp fk`ob^pbp qeb
pfwb lc qeb
pfwb lc qeb
obplk^qfkd
obplk^qfkd
`e^j_bo) ^ka
`e^j_bo) ^ka
^iiltp qeb
^iiltp qeb
`lkplk^kq ql _b
`lkplk^kq ql _b
molklrk`ba
molklrk`ba
`lkqfkrlrpiv+
`lkqfkrlrpiv+
Classification of Consonants
Classification of Consonants
Velar sounds are pronounced with the tongue
near or touching the velum, or àsoft-palateá:
Velar sounds are pronounced with the tongue
near or touching the velum, or àsoft-palateá:
plrka
fp qefp<
Klt te^q
plrka fp P^jjv
fp qefp<
plrka fp P^jjv
molklrk`fkd <
molklrk`fkd <
Classification of Consonants
Alveolar sounds are pronounced with the tongue
near or touching the alveolar ridge, just behind
the top teeth. What is Sammy saying now?
Classification of Consonants
So far we have only seen stops. To produce a
fricative, the air stream is impeded, but not
stopped. What sound do you think this is? Watch
the larynx!
/
Qefp fk`ob^pbp qeb
Te^q
Te^q
plrka
Klt te^q
Classification of Consonants
Classification of Consonants
/ are pronounced
with the tongue behind the alveolar ridge:
/ and /
ʒʒʒʒ
With the three parameters of voicing,
place of articulation and manner of
articulation, we can uniquely identify
(almost) all the phonemic consonants of
English.
plrka
fp qefp<
fp qefp<
Places of Articulation
Voiced and Voiceless
, ð/
Alveolar ridge: Alveolar consonants /t, d, s, z, n, l/
Central palate (or hard palate): Palatal consonants
/
θθθθ
Voicing introduces vibration into the
resonating column of air. When the vocal
folds are tensed, they vibrate as the air
stream passes them. The result is a
voiced sound, such as /z/ and /v/. When
the vocal folds relax, the air stream
passes them without causing vibration.
The result is a voiceless sound, such as
/s/, /f/ and /t/.
, d
ʒ
, y/
Velum (or soft palate): Velar consonants /k, g
,
ŋŋŋŋ
/
Glottis: Glottal fricative /h/
,
ʒ
,
r, t
ʃʃʃʃ
Manner of Articulation
The process by which the moving column of air is
shaped is called the manner of articulation. For English,
these are:
Stops: /p, t, k, b, d, g/
Fricatives:/f, v,
θ
θθ
θ
, ð, s, z,
ʃ
ʃʃ
ʃ,
, ʒ
ʒʒ
ʒ,
,,
,
h/
The Stops
Stops occur when the air stream stops
completely for an instant before it exits
the vocal tract.
Voiceless stops in English are the /p/ in
pour and slap, the /t/ in time and adept,
and the /k/ in cold and poke.
Voiced stops are the /b/ in bow and crab,
the /d/ in dock and blood, and the /g/ in
game and bag
/
Nasals: /m, n,
ŋŋŋŋ
/ (sometimes called
Ð
nasal stops
Ñ
)
Liquids: /l, r/
Glides: /w, y, hw/
ʧ
,
ʤʤʤʤ
0
Palatal fricatives, like /
ʃʃʃʃ
Te^q
Te^q
plrka
Lips: Bilabial consonants /p, b, m, w/
Lips and teeth: Labiodental consonants: /f, v/
Teeth: Interdental consonants /
ʃʃʃʃ
, ,
Affricates: /
The Fricatives
The Affricates
Fricatives occur when the air stream is
audibly disrupted but not stopped
completely.
Voiced fricatives are the /v/ in
v
ery and
sho
v
e, the /ð/ in
th
y and ba
th
e, the /z/ in
z
oo and wi
s
e, and the /
ʒ
/ in mea
s
ure and
Affricates start out as a stop, but end up
as a fricative. There are two affricates in
English, both of which are palatal.
Therefore we do not need to mention
place of articulation to describe afficates.
The voiceless affricate is the /t
Zh
a
Zh
a.
Voiceless fricatives are the /f/ in
f
ool and
lau
gh
, the /
ʃ
/ in lunch
/ in
sh
ock and na
ti
on, the /s/ in
s
oup and
mi
ss
, and the /h/ in
h
ope and a
h
oy.
/ in
th
igh and ba
th
, the /
ʃ
and chapter.
The voiced affricate is the /d
ʒ
/in germ,
journal and wedge
The Nasals
The Liquids
Nasals occur when velum is lowered
allowing the air stream to pass through
the nasal cavity instead of the mouth.
The air stream is stopped in the oral
cavity, so sometimes nasals are called
ànasal stops.á We will just call them
ànasals.á
Nasals are the /m/ in mind and sum, the
/n/ in now and sign, and the /
ŋ
/ in sing,
longer and bank.
Liquids occur when the air stream flows
continuously through the mouth with less
obstruction than that of a fricative. Both
liquids in English are voiced, so we donÞt
need to mention voicing when we describe
liquids.
The Liquids
The Glides
The àlateralá liquid, /l/, is pronounced with the
restriction in the alveolar region at the beginning of
syllables, as in low and syllable, but in the velar
region at the ends of syllables, as in call, halter,
and (optionally) syllable. It is called àlateralá
because air flows around the sides of the tongue
The àcentralá liquid is the /r/ in rough and chore.
This also has various pronunciations. It is called
àcentralá because air flows over the center of the
tongue.
So the terms àcentralá and àlateralá replace the place
of articulation in descriptions of the liquids.
Glides occur when the air stream is
unobstructed, producing an articulation that is
vowel-like, but moves quickly to another
articulation making it a consonant.
Sometimes glides are described as semi-
vowels.
The glides in English include the /w/ in witch
and away, and the /y/ in yes and yoyo.
Some English speakers have a voiceless
alveolar glide. This is transcribed /hw/ and
occurs in whether, and why.
1
θ
Redundancy
Redundancy,
Syllables
and
Consonant Clusters
Sometimes we don’t need to specify all three
articulatory parameters (voicing, place and
manner of articulation) in order to uniquely
identify certain consonants. This is because
some features entail certain other features.
For example, the manner feature of “nasal”
entails “voiced.” This is because there are no
voiceless nasal consonants in English. To
specify voicing for nasal consonants would be
redundant.
Syllabic and Non-Syllabic Sounds
Syllabic and Non-Syllabic Sounds
A syllable is a peak of sonority, often
surrounded by less sonorous segments.
A rhyme consists of an obligatory
nucleus, followed by an optional coda.
σ
A syllable consists of an obligatory
rhyme, preceded by an optional onset.
σ
(sigma)
(sigma)
(O) R
(O) R
N (C)
Syllabic and Non-Syllabic Sounds
Syllabic and Non-Syllabic Sounds
A syllable nucleus consists of an obligatory
sonorant (or resonant) segment, usually a
vowel:
(sigma)
The onset and coda, when present, may
consist of one or more less sonorant
segments:
(O) R
O R
N C
N (C)
V
C C C V C C
/ s p r
ɪ
n t /
2
σ
σ
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