A Communicative Grammar of English - 1st ed. (Longman, 1975).pdf - Angielski - zznn

GeoHrey Leech

Jan Svartvik

A Communicative

Grammar

of Eng/ish

Contents

PREFACE

To the student 4. To the teacher 5 . Note on phonetic symbols 8

Part One Varieties of English 9

Part Two Intonation 21

Part Three Grammar in use

SECTION A: CONCEPTS i

Referring to object>, substances and materials 26. Abstractions 29. Amount or

quantity 31. Definite and indefinite meaning 35. Relations between ideas expressed

by nouns 42. Restrictive and non-restrictive meaning 45. Time, tense and aspect 46.

Time-when 59 . Duration 62. Frequency 64. Place, direction and distance 65 .

Manner, means and instrument 74 . Cause, reason and purpose 76. Cpndition and

contrast 79. Degree 82. Role, standard and viewpoint 86 . Comparison 87. Addition,

exception and restriction 90. Subject matter: about and 911 92

SECTION B: INFORMATION, REALITY AND BELIEF

Statements, questions and responses 93. Omission of information 99. Reported

statements and questions 100. Denial and affirmation 103. Agreement and

disagreement 106. Fact, hypothesis and neutrality 107. Degrees of likelihood III.

Attitudes to truth 115

SECTION c: MOOD, EMOTION AND ATTITUDE

Emotive emphasis in speech 117. Describing emotions 120. Volition .124. Permission

and obligation 126. Influencing people 128. Friendly communications 134. Vocatives

\38

SECTION D: MEANING IN CONNECTED DISCOURSE

Linking signals 139. Linking constructions 141. 'General purpose' links 143.

Substitution and omission 145. Presenting and focusing information 152. Order and

emphasis 158

Part Four Grammatical Compendium

How to use the Compendium 169. Adjectives 172. Adjective or adverb? 175.

Adjectives as heads 176. Adverbials 177. Adverbs 182 . Apposition 184. Articles

185. Auxiliary verbs 187. Case 19J. Clauses 191. Cleft sentences 195. Commands

I%. Comment clauses 196. Comparison 197. Complements 200. Concord 200.

Coordination 203 . Demonstratives 205. Determiners 205 . Exclamations 210. Gender

210. Genitive 210. Interrogatives 213. Introductory it 215. Introductory there 216.

Irregular verbs 218. Main verbs 222. Nationality words 224 . Negation 226. Nominal

clauses 228 . Noun phrases 23 \. Number 232. Numerals 233. Objects 236. Operators

236. Passives 237. Personal and reflexive pronouns 239. Phrasal and prepositional

. verbs 243. Plurals 246. Postmodifires 248. Premodifires 251 . Prepositional phrases

253 . Prepositions and prepositional adverbs 254. Pronouns 255. Pronunciation of

endings 256. Proper nouns 257. Quantifires 259. Questions 263. Reciprocal

pronouns 265 . Relative clauses 265. Sentences 268 . Some-words and ally-word s 269.

Spelling changes 271. Subjects 273. Subjunctives 274. Subordination 274. Verb

patterns 277 . Verb phrases 283. Word-classes 287

Index 289

Preface

To the student

A Communicative Grammar 0/ English is a new kind of grammar. In writing it,

we have assumed that studying grammar, for the overseas student, makes most

sense if one starts with the question 'How can I use grammar to communicate?'.

Thus the main part of the book is devoted to the USES of grammar, rather than to

grammatical STRUCTURE.

The book is intended primarily for the fairly advanced student, for example

the university student. If you are such a student you will have studied

grammar in one form or another already, but here we offer you a hew

perspective on the subject, which relates grammatical structure systematically to

...""",,,a'I!.", uses and situations. In this way we hope you will improve and extend

the range of your communicative skill in the language. The book also supplies the

essential information about grammatical forms and structures which you will

need, and can therefore be used as a general reference book or sourcebook on

English grammar.

The plan of the whole book is as follows:

. Part One Varieties of Englisb

Here we explain brieRy different kinds or varieties of such as <informal

English), <written and <Americap We make extensive use of

such labels in the other parts of the book, because it is important, for communi-

cation, to know in what contexts a form of will be used.

Part One ends with a list of references to variety which enables you to

follow up the range of constructions and uses associated with a

given variety, such as <informal English).

Part Two Intonation

Much of the book deals with English, and effective communication in

de]perlds to a great extent on intonation. So in this part, we introduce the

most important features of English intonation,

with the intonation

symbols which are used in Part Three.

Part Three Grammar in use

This is the central part of the book which you will want to use most. In it the

different types of

and different ways of organising meaning are dis-

4 cussed in :SYStenrllll:IC order.

Part Four Grammatical compendium

This part is a reference guide to English grammatical forms and structures,

in order. It is a necessary complement to Part Three, in

that it explains the grammatical terms used there.

There is a comprehensive index at the end of the book which will give you

convenient access to the information contained in the various parts.

To the teacber

A Communicative Grammar 0/ English is a fresh departure in grammar writing in

that it employs a communicative rather than a structural approach. There are

several reasons for the communication aspects of learning

grammar. let us consider just two.

The type of student we have had in mind when writing this book is fairly

advanced, for example a student at a university or college.

Usually, he already has grounding in the grammar of the language after several

years ofschool English. Yet his proficiency in actually the language may be

disappointing. This, we believe, may be partly attributed to 'grammar fatigue'.

The student may therefore benefit from looking at grammar frQffi another angle,

where grammatical structures are systematically related to meanings, uses and

situations.

The conventional method of presenting English grammar in terms of structure

also has a certain drawback. in itself. For example, in such a grammar notions of

time may be dealt with in as many as four different places: under the tense of the

verb, under time adverbs, under prepositional phrases denoting time and under

temporal conjunctions and clauses. The student who is primarily interested in

mak.ing use of the language rather than in learning about its structure (and this is

true for the majority of foreign students) is not likely to find such an arrangement

particularly helpful. The organisation of A Communicative Grammar 0/ English,

the central part of which deals with grammar in use, makes it possible to bring

similar notions, such as those involving time, together in one place.

The book consist\ of four parts:

Part One Varieties of English

Where English gives us a choice of grammatical structures for a particular

purpose, the different gr~lmmatical structures available are often not equivalent,

since they belong to different or 'varieties'. We believe that the appropriate

choice is a$ important as it is difficult for the type of student we have in mind.

Throughout the bOQk, we make use of'variety labels' such as <formal),

(iqformal), (written), (spoken). Part One describes what these variety labels

mean, and supplies in 22-30 a detailed list of their uses in the rest of the book.

Part Two Intonation

Intonation is clearly important in a communicative treatment stressing spoken

English. In Part Two our object is to provide the student with the basic informa- 5

A Communicative Grammar of English - 1st ed. (Longman, 1975).pdf

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