Religious Holidays and Calendars.pdf

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Bibliographic Note
The information in this publication was compiled from the sources cited in the bibliography with guidance from the
advisors listed in the Preface and from other sources considered reliable. While every possible effort has been made
to ensure reliability, the publisher will not assume liability for damages caused by inaccuracies in the data, and makes
no warranty, express or implied, on the accuracy of the information contained herein.
Karen Bellenir, Managing Editor
Bruce N. G. Cromwell, Ph.D., Contributing Editor
Wendy Heller, Contributing Editor
Patricia Lin, Ph.D., Contributing Editor
Laura Pleva Nielsen, Index Editor
EdIndex, Services for Publishers, Indexers
* * *
Omnigraphics, Inc.
Matthew P. Barbour, Senior Vice President
Kay Gill, Vice President—Directories
Kevin Hayes, Operations Manager
Leif Gruenberg, Development Manager
David P. Bianco, Marketing Consultant
* * *
Peter E. Ruffner, Publisher
Frederick G. Ruffner, Jr., Chairman
Copyright © 2004 Omnigraphics, Inc.
ISBN 0-7808-0665-4
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Electronic or mechanical reproduction, including photography, recording, or any other information storage and re-
trieval system for the purpose of resale is strictly prohibited without permission in writing from the publisher.
This book is printed on acid-free paper meeting the ANSI Z39.48 Standard. The infinity symbol that appears above
indicates that the paper in this book meets that standard.
Printed in the United States
 
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Table of Contents
Foreward .................................................................................................................................................... ix
Preface ........................................................................................................................................................ xi
Part One: The History of Calendars
Chapter 1
Basic Questions All Calendars Must Answer ............................................. 3
Calendars throughout History ......................................................................... 3
Origins of the Calendar ..................................................................................... 3
How Long Is a Day? .......................................................................................... 5
How Long Is a Month? ...................................................................................... 6
How Long Is a Year? .......................................................................................... 8
Chapter 2
The History of Lunar and Lunisolar Calendars ........................................ 11
The Chinese Calendar ..................................................................................... 11
The Calendars of India .................................................................................... 13
The Babylonian Calendar ................................................................................ 13
The Jewish Calendar ........................................................................................ 15
The Greek Calendars ....................................................................................... 15
The Islamic Calendar ....................................................................................... 22
British Traditions .............................................................................................. 22
The Teutonic Calendars .................................................................................. 24
The Icelandic Calendar .................................................................................... 25
Chapter 3
The History of Solar Calendars .................................................................... 27
The Mayan and Aztec Calendars ................................................................... 27
The Egyptian Calendar .................................................................................... 29
The Roman Calendar and Julian Reform ..................................................... 30
The Gregorian Reform ..................................................................................... 32
Chapter 4
Calendar Reform Since the Mid-Eighteenth Century ............................. 35
Moving toward a Secular Calendar ............................................................... 35
The French Republican Calendar .................................................................. 35
The Positivist Calendar ................................................................................... 36
Twentieth-Century Reform Proposals .......................................................... 36
Calendars in a New Millenium ...................................................................... 37
v
Part Two: Calendars and Holidays for Religious Groups
Chapter 5
Judaism .............................................................................................................. 41
Overview of Judaism ....................................................................................... 41
The Jewish Calendar ........................................................................................ 46
Jewish Holidays ................................................................................................ 49
Chapter 6
Zoroastrianism ................................................................................................. 59
Overview of Zoroastrianism .......................................................................... 59
The Zoroastrian Calendars ............................................................................. 63
Zoroastrian Holidays ....................................................................................... 66
Chapter 7
Christianity: Roman Catholic and Protestant Expressions ..................... 71
Overview of Roman Catholicism and the Protestant Reformation .......... 71
Christian Calendars ......................................................................................... 77
Christian Holidays ........................................................................................... 83
Chapter 8
Christianity: Orthodox Expressions .......................................................... 107
Overview of Christian Orthodoxy ............................................................... 107
Orthodox Calendars ...................................................................................... 110
Orthodox Holidays ........................................................................................ 114
Chapter 9
Christianity: Non-Trinitarian and Non-Traditional Expressions ....... 125
Overview of Other Christian Expressions ................................................. 125
Christian Science ............................................................................................ 125
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormonism) ..................... 126
Holy Spirit Association for the Unification of World
Christianity (Unification Church) ................................................................ 127
Jehovah’s Witnesses ....................................................................................... 128
Swedenborgian Church (Church of the New Jerusalem) ........................ 129
Unitarian Universalism ................................................................................. 130
United Church of God ................................................................................... 132
Chapter 10
Islam ................................................................................................................. 135
Overview of Islam .......................................................................................... 135
The Islamic Calendar ..................................................................................... 142
Islamic Holidays ............................................................................................. 143
Chapter 11
The Bahá’í Faith ............................................................................................. 151
Overview of the Bahá’í Faith ........................................................................ 151
The Bahá’í Calendar ....................................................................................... 154
Bahá’í Holidays .............................................................................................. 155
vi
Chapter 12
Hinduism ........................................................................................................ 159
Overview of Hinduism ................................................................................. 159
The Hindu Calendars .................................................................................... 164
Hindu Holidays .............................................................................................. 167
Chapter 13
Jainism ............................................................................................................. 191
Overview of Jainism ...................................................................................... 191
The Jain Calendar ........................................................................................... 194
Jain Holidays ................................................................................................... 195
Chapter 14
Sikhism ........................................................................................................... 197
Overview of Sikhism ..................................................................................... 197
The Sikh Calendars ........................................................................................ 201
Sikh Holidays .................................................................................................. 203
Chapter 15
Buddhism ........................................................................................................ 207
Overview of Buddhism ................................................................................. 207
Buddhist Adaptations of Regional Calendars ........................................... 214
Buddhist Holidays ......................................................................................... 215
Chapter 16
Taoism, Confucianism, and Chinese Folk Religions ............................ 223
Overview of Chinese Religious Thought ................................................... 223
The Chinese Lunar Calendar ........................................................................ 229
Taoist, Confucian, and Other Chinese Religious Holidays ..................... 230
Chapter 17
Shinto ............................................................................................................... 237
Overview of Shinto ........................................................................................ 237
Japanese Lunar Calendar and Modern Reforms ....................................... 240
Shinto Holidays .............................................................................................. 241
Chapter 18
Native American Religions ......................................................................... 245
Overview of Indigenous American Religions ........................................... 245
Seasonal Cycles ............................................................................................... 250
Holidays Observed by Indigenous American People .............................. 251
Chapter 19
Paganism ......................................................................................................... 261
Overview of Pagan and Neo-Pagan Religious Expression ...................... 261
Pagan Calendars ............................................................................................. 264
Pagan Holidays ............................................................................................... 267
vii

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