technology_notes_2008.pdf

Technology notes

WaterAid/Caroline Penn

TECHNOLOGY NOTES

Section 1 Introduction

Section Considerations before design

Section 3 Hygiene education

Section 4 Water resource development

Section 5 Gravity schemes

Section 6 Hand-dug wells

Section 7 Tubewells and boreholes

Section 8 Handpumps

Section 9 Spring protection

Section 10 Rainwater harvesting

Section 11 Sub-surface dams

Section 1 Sanitation

Section 13 Disinfection

Section 14 Treatment of water

INTRODUCTION

Technology notes

These Technology Notes have been prepared following many general enquiries for technical information having been

received by WaterAid over the years.

Their purpose is to give an outline of the technologies used by WaterAid on long-term development projects in Africa and

Asia, and to show alternatives which might be appropriate in different circumstances. It may be possible to determine from

the notes the technology which would be appropriate in a particular location.

If it is proposed to proceed with the design and construction of a project using any of the principles set out in these notes, it

is strongly recommended that further details be obtained from a specialist or from the reference books which are listed at the

end of the relevant section.

Acknowledgements

These notes have been prepared within WaterAid for use by its own staff and by those organisations which have requested

technical help from WaterAid.

In order to illustrate the points raised in the text, drawings, sketches and charts have been collected from various sources. It

is not always possible to locate the original source of the illustrations, but WaterAid wishes to acknowledge that some have

been taken from publications listed in the references at the end of sections.

WaterAid thanks the relevant authors and organisations and trusts that mutual cooperation will continue.

CONSIDERaTIONS bEfORE DESIGN

Introduction

There are many non-technical points which should be considered fully by the supporting agency and the community before

any scheme proceeds, in order to ensure long term sustainability and maximum beneit of the scheme to the health and

quality of life of the community.

The involvement, by supporting agencies, of communities in the design, implementation, monitoring, review and evaluation

of a project enhances their sense of ownership. In turn, this empowers people to make decisions, relevant to their

perceptions and needs, concerning the work which will help to safeguard the long-term sustainability of the project.

A commitment by the local community to participate fully in the scheme is now considered by WaterAid to be essential in all

the projects which it supports. This means commitment at all stages. The stages can be considered to be: appraising the

project, including the setting up of a baseline survey from which to measure improvements; setting its aims and objectives;

designing it with the involvement of all the stakeholders; and setting up a monitoring system.

During the irst stage, before any construction begins, consideration must be given to the inal ownership; the management

of day to day operations, however small; the method of payment for any repairs and maintenance; and the possibility of

future extensions when neighbours see the beneits of the project.

Unless the scheme is to supply a formal institution such as a school or hospital, or a refugee or resettlement camp, the inal

owners should be the community which it serves.

Early formation of a committee

It is essential that the community is involved in decision making at an early stage and that local people determine the type of

scheme, as far as it is technically possible, which they feel will serve them best.

This is best achieved by the formation of a committee, in which the whole community, whether a small town or just a group of

homes around a spring, must be involved. Every effort should be made to make this committee truly representative of all the

interests in the community, with men and women being equally represented on it. This committee will make decisions

regarding all aspects of the project; these are likely to include such matters as:

j The type of scheme

j The location of water supply points, wells, boreholes, tapstands, etc

j The method of construction

j Whether the initial contribution should consist of cash or labour

j The method of payment to accumulate funds for eventual repairs

j The daily maintenance and cleanliness of the system

Hygiene education

Whether it is a water supply and/or a sanitation scheme that is proposed, the ultimate aim is to improve the health and

quality of life of the community. Technical developments or improvements will give maximum beneit only if they are part of a

wider hygiene education programme. This may involve the changing of long held attitudes and practices and may well take

considerably longer to achieve than the actual construction of the scheme.

Hygiene education must be a community activity so that everyone goes forward together without any group being left

behind. It is usual for the women to be the ones who are primarily concerned with the health of the family, and education will

normally concentrate on them. However, it is often the children who are the easiest to educate regarding the beneits of

hygiene education, and then they insist on changes being made within the family unit.

The community’s contribution to the scheme

Decisions will have to be made by the supporting agency, in cooperation with the community’s committee, regarding the

nature of the community’s contribution to the setting up of the scheme. This could, and probably should, include the

provision of labour for construction, under the supervision of a suitably qualiied person. A inancial contribution may be

required towards the initial capital cost, or to set up a fund for future maintenance.

Costs of operation and maintenance

The cost of operating the project when it is inished must be considered at an early stage. This may be little more than the

cost of payment for the occasional services of a caretaker to clean the apron and steps at a protected spring, handpump or

borehole. However, it might be considerably more, such as the cost of maintenance, and possible replacement of parts, for a

handpump, or the operation of a diesel driven pump, including the provision of fuel or even the provision and dosing of

chemicals for water treatment.

The following list of headings to be considered was used in the preparation of a maintenance budget for self suficiency for a

gravity scheme, from a spring source, supplying 50,000 people in rural Ethiopia.

j Salaries

j Protective clothing

j Ofice staff and caretakers

j Hand tools

j Maintenance

j Meter replacements

j Labour costs

j Consultants – (to advise on management and engineering)

j Materials for repairs

j Training

j Ofice costs

j Motor bikes

j Maintenance – structure and equipment

j Replacement costs

j Stationery and printing

j Running cost

j Transport cost

Two other items to consider (not applicable in this particular

example project) are diesel fuel and electricity.

j Truck hire to carry out repairs

j Caretakers attending the ofice

Payment for water

It is essential that a community understands that it is necessary to make some payment for the water that is used.

The method of payment will vary according to the type of system and the nature of the users.

It may be payment to a caretaker for each jerrycan collected, probably the most equitable way. However, this requires

honesty and integrity from both the caretaker in handling cash and the user in offering payment. A monthly charge per

household is easier to collect, but visitors, nomads or travellers will not contribute. Also, excess water used for irrigation or

cattle watering is not covered by this method of charging, and there is no incentive to prevent wastage.

All accounts should be managed by some person who is respected within the community and should regularly be made

available for public scrutiny. The community must decide what method, or combination of methods, it will use to build up

funds for future maintenance.

Monitoring and evaluation

Monitoring of the project is a continual process: to check whether or not it is progressing in accordance with its aims and

objectives; to identify problems as they develop; and to maintain a continual reporting system to all involved.

Provision should be made to carry out a inal evaluation of the project on completion. This process will examine its

performance, to ind out whether or not its aims and objectives have been achieved, and what effect and impact it has had on

the local people and their environment.

REFERENCES:

1 Scinivasan L (1990) Tools for Community Participation

PROWESS/UNDP

Davis, Garvey and Wood (1993) Developing and Managing Community Water Supplies

Oxfam

3 Petty et al (1995) Participatory Learning and Action: A Trainer’s Guide

IIED

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